Different research ethics

The browser controls to adjust the font size, or print this is ethics in research & why is it important? Ideas and opinions expressed in this essay are the author’s own and do not necessarily represent those of the nih, niehs, or us most people think of ethics (or morals), they think of rules for distinguishing between right and wrong, such as the golden rule ("do unto others as you would have them do unto you"), a code of professional conduct like the hippocratic oath ("first of all, do no harm"), a religious creed like the ten commandments ("thou shalt not kill... This is the most common way of defining "ethics": norms for conduct that distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable people learn ethical norms at home, at school, in church, or in other social settings. Although most people acquire their sense of right and wrong during childhood, moral development occurs throughout life and human beings pass through different stages of growth as they mature. Plausible explanation of these disagreements is that all people recognize some common ethical norms but interpret, apply, and balance them in different ways in light of their own values and life experiences. For example, two people could agree that murder is wrong but disagree about the morality of abortion because they have different understandings of what it means to be a human societies also have legal rules that govern behavior, but ethical norms tend to be broader and more informal than laws. Although most societies use laws to enforce widely accepted moral standards and ethical and legal rules use similar concepts, ethics and law are not the same. Peaceful civil disobedience is an ethical way of protesting laws or expressing political r way of defining 'ethics' focuses on the disciplines that study standards of conduct, such as philosophy, theology, law, psychology, or sociology. One may also define ethics as a method, procedure, or perspective for deciding how to act and for analyzing complex problems and issues. While an economist might examine the cost and benefits of various policies related to global warming, an environmental ethicist could examine the ethical values and principles at different disciplines, institutions, and professions have standards for behavior that suit their particular aims and goals. Ethical norms also serve the aims or goals of research and apply to people who conduct scientific research or other scholarly or creative activities. See glossary of commonly used terms in research are several reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical norms in research. First, norms promote the aims of research, such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error. For example, prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresenting research data promote the truth and minimize , since research often involves a great deal of cooperation and coordination among many different people in different disciplines and institutions, ethical standards promote the values that are essential to collaborative work, such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness. For example, many ethical norms in research, such as guidelines for authorship, copyright and patenting policies, data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer review, are designed to protect intellectual property interests while encouraging collaboration. Most researchers want to receive credit for their contributions and do not want to have their ideas stolen or disclosed , many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held accountable to the public. For instance, federal policies on research misconduct, conflicts of interest, the human subjects protections, and animal care and use are necessary in order to make sure that researchers who are funded by public money can be held accountable to the , ethical norms in research also help to build public support for research. People are more likely to fund a research project if they can trust the quality and integrity of y, many of the norms of research promote a variety of other important moral and social values, such as social responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, compliance with the law, and public health and safety. Ethical lapses in research can significantly harm human and animal subjects, students, and the public. For example, a researcher who fabricates data in a clinical trial may harm or even kill patients, and a researcher who fails to abide by regulations and guidelines relating to radiation or biological safety may jeopardize his health and safety or the health and safety of staff and and policies for research the importance of ethics for the conduct of research, it should come as no surprise that many different professional associations, government agencies, and universities have adopted specific codes, rules, and policies relating to research ethics. Many government agencies, such as the national institutes of health (nih), the national science foundation (nsf), the food and drug administration (fda), the environmental protection agency (epa), and the us department of agriculture (usda) have ethics rules for funded researchers. Other influential research ethics policies include singapore statement on research integrity, the american chemical society, the chemist professional’s code of conduct, code of ethics (american society for clinical laboratory science) american psychological association, ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct, statements on ethics and professional responsibility (american anthropological association), statement on professional ethics (american association of university professors), the nuremberg code and the world medical association's declaration of following is a rough and general summary of some ethical principals that various codes address*:Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Do not deceive colleagues, research sponsors, or the to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research where objectivity is expected or required. Keep good records of research activities, such as data collection, research design, and correspondence with agencies or data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Never t confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient sible h in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Promote their welfare and allow them to make their own t for t your colleagues and treat them to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public education, and discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors not related to scientific competence and in and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal subjects conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly. It is therefore important for researchers to learn how to interpret, assess, and apply various research rules and how to make decisions and to act ethically in various situations. For example, consider the following case,The research protocol for a study of a drug on hypertension requires the administration of the drug at different doses to 50 laboratory mice, with chemical and behavioral tests to determine toxic effects. He therefore decides to extrapolate from the 45 completed results to produce the 5 additional different research ethics policies would hold that tom has acted unethically by fabricating data.

If this study were sponsored by a federal agency, such as the nih, his actions would constitute a form of research misconduct, which the government defines as "fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism" (or ffp). It is important to remember, however, that misconduct occurs only when researchers intend to deceive: honest errors related to sloppiness, poor record keeping, miscalculations, bias, self-deception, and even negligence do not constitute misconduct. The error does not affect the overall results of his research, but it is potentially misleading. Failing to publish a correction would be unethical because it would violate norms relating to honesty and objectivity in are many other activities that the government does not define as "misconduct" but which are still regarded by most researchers as unethical. These are sometimes referred to as "other deviations" from acceptable research practices and include:Publishing the same paper in two different journals without telling the ting the same paper to different journals without telling the informing a collaborator of your intent to file a patent in order to make sure that you are the sole ing a colleague as an author on a paper in return for a favor even though the colleague did not make a serious contribution to the sing with your colleagues confidential data from a paper that you are reviewing for a data, ideas, or methods you learn about while reviewing a grant or a papers without ng outliers from a data set without discussing your reasons in an inappropriate statistical technique in order to enhance the significance of your ing the peer review process and announcing your results through a press conference without giving peers adequate information to review your ting a review of the literature that fails to acknowledge the contributions of other people in the field or relevant prior hing the truth on a grant application in order to convince reviewers that your project will make a significant contribution to the hing the truth on a job application or curriculum the same research project to two graduate students in order to see who can do it the rking, neglecting, or exploiting graduate or post-doctoral g to keep good research g to maintain research data for a reasonable period of derogatory comments and personal attacks in your review of author's ing a student a better grade for sexual a racist epithet in the significant deviations from the research protocol approved by your institution's animal care and use committee or institutional review board for human subjects research without telling the committee or the reporting an adverse event in a human research g animals in ng students and staff to biological risks in violation of your institution's biosafety ging someone's ng supplies, books, or g an experiment so you know how it will turn unauthorized copies of data, papers, or computer over $10,000 in stock in a company that sponsors your research and not disclosing this financial rately overestimating the clinical significance of a new drug in order to obtain economic actions would be regarded as unethical by most scientists and some might even be illegal in some cases. However, they do not fall into the narrow category of actions that the government classifies as research misconduct. Indeed, there has been considerable debate about the definition of "research misconduct" and many researchers and policy makers are not satisfied with the government's narrow definition that focuses on ffp. However, given the huge list of potential offenses that might fall into the category "other serious deviations," and the practical problems with defining and policing these other deviations, it is understandable why government officials have chosen to limit their y, situations frequently arise in research in which different people disagree about the proper course of action and there is no broad consensus about what should be done. In these situations, there may be good arguments on both sides of the issue and different ethical principles may conflict. She receives a request from another research team that wants access to her complete dataset. On the one hand, the ethical norm of openness obliges her to share data with the other research team. Another option would be to offer to collaborate with the following are some step that researchers, such as dr. Wexford, can take to deal with ethical dilemmas in research:What is the problem or issue? In this case, the issue is whether to share information with the other research is the relevant information? Wexford needs to have more information concerning such matters as university or funding agency or journal policies that may apply to this situation, the team's intellectual property interests, the possibility of negotiating some kind of agreement with the other team, whether the other team also has some information it is willing to share, the impact of the potential publications, are the different options? May fail to see different options due to a limited imagination, bias, ignorance, or fear. In this case, there may be other choices besides 'share' or 'don't share,' such as 'negotiate an agreement' or 'offer to collaborate with the researchers. Do ethical codes or policies as well as legal rules apply to these different options? May be useful to seek advice from a colleague, a senior researcher, your department chair, an ethics or compliance officer, or anyone else you can trust. Wexford might want to talk to her supervisor and research team before making a considering these questions, a person facing an ethical dilemma may decide to ask more questions, gather more information, explore different options, or consider other ethical rules. The main point is that human reasoning plays a pivotal role in ethical decision-making but there are limits to its ability to solve all ethical dilemmas in a finite amount of ing ethical conduct in academic institutions in the us require undergraduate, graduate, or postgraduate students to have some education in the responsible conduct of research (rcr). The nih and nsf have both mandated training in research ethics for students and trainees. Many academic institutions outside of the us have also developed educational curricula in research of you who are taking or have taken courses in research ethics may be wondering why you are required to have education in research ethics. Indeed, you also may believe that most of your colleagues are highly ethical and that there is no ethics problem in research.. Indeed, the evidence produced so far shows that misconduct is a very rare occurrence in research, although there is considerable variation among various estimates. Of researchers per year (based on confirmed cases of misconduct in federally funded research) to as high as 1% of researchers per year (based on self-reports of misconduct on anonymous surveys). Even if misconduct is only a rare occurrence, it can still have a tremendous impact on science and society because it can compromise the integrity of research, erode the public’s trust in science, and waste time and resources. In any case, a course in research ethics will have little impact on "bad apples," one might ing to the "stressful" or "imperfect" environment theory, misconduct occurs because various institutional pressures, incentives, and constraints encourage people to commit misconduct, such as pressures to publish or obtain grants or contracts, career ambitions, the pursuit of profit or fame, poor supervision of students and trainees, and poor oversight of researchers (see shamoo and resnik 2015). In any case, a course in research ethics can be useful in helping to prevent deviations from norms even if it does not prevent misconduct. Education in research ethics is can help people get a better understanding of ethical standards, policies, and issues and improve ethical judgment and decision making.

Many of the deviations that occur in research may occur because researchers simply do not know or have never thought seriously about some of the ethical norms of research. Another example where there may be some ignorance or mistaken traditions is conflicts of interest in research. A researcher may think that a "normal" or "traditional" financial relationship, such as accepting stock or a consulting fee from a drug company that sponsors her research, raises no serious ethical issues. Maybe a physician thinks that it is perfectly appropriate to receive a $300 finder’s fee for referring patients into a clinical "deviations" from ethical conduct occur in research as a result of ignorance or a failure to reflect critically on problematic traditions, then a course in research ethics may help reduce the rate of serious deviations by improving the researcher's understanding of ethics and by sensitizing him or her to the y, education in research ethics should be able to help researchers grapple with the ethical dilemmas they are likely to encounter by introducing them to important concepts, tools, principles, and methods that can be useful in resolving these dilemmas. Scientists must deal with a number of different controversial topics, such as human embryonic stem cell research, cloning, genetic engineering, and research involving animal or human subjects, which require ethical reflection and b. Icist and niehs irb d@tative tative tation ch questions & ts, constructs & ples of research are a number of ethical principles that should be taken into account when performing undergraduate and master's level dissertation research. In practice, these ethical principles mean that as a researcher, you need to: (a) obtain informed consent from potential research participants; (b) minimise the risk of harm to participants; (c) protect their anonymity and confidentiality; (d) avoid using deceptive practices; and (e) give participants the right to withdraw from your research. However, there are many instances where it is not possible or desirable to obtain informed consent from research participants. More often than not, such choices should reflect the research strategy that you adopt to guide your y speaking, your dissertation research should not only aim to do good (i. Whilst ethical requirements in research can vary across countries, these are the basic principles of research ethics. This is important not only for ethical reasons, but also practical ones, since a failure to meet such basic principles may lead to your research being (a) criticised, potentially leading to a lower mark, and/or (b) rejected by your supervisor or ethics committee, costing you valuable time. Each of these basic principles of research ethics is discussed in turn:Principle one: minimising the risk of ple two: obtaining informed ple three: protecting anonymity and ple four: avoiding deceptive ple five: providing the right to sing the risk of tation research should not harm participants. Privacy and lly, it is not harm that we need to think about since a researcher does not intentionally go out to cause harm. In order to minimising the risk of harm you should think about:Obtaining informed consent from ting the anonymity and confidentiality of ng deceptive practices when designing your ing participants with the right to withdraw from your research at any discuss each of these ethical principles in the sections that follow, explaining (a) what they mean and (b) instances where they should (and should not) be ing informed of the foundations of research ethics is the idea of informed consent. Simply put, informed consent means that participants should understand that (a) they are taking part in research and (b) what the research requires of them. Such information may include the purpose of the research, the methods being used, the possible outcomes of the research, as well as associated demands, discomforts, inconveniences and risks that the participants may face. We discuss these in more detail under the section: avoiding deceptive ting anonymity and ting the anonymity and confidentiality of research participants is another practical component of research ethics. After all, participants will typically only be willing to volunteer information, especially information of a private or sensitive nature, if the researcher agrees to hold such information in confidence. Whilst it is possible that research participants may be hurt in some way if the data collection methods used are somehow insensitive, there is perhaps a greater danger that harm can be caused once data has been collected. However, this does not mean that all data collected from research participants needs to be kept confidential or anonymous. It may be possible to disclose the identity and views of individuals at various stages of the research process (from data collection through to publication of your dissertation). However, such a stripping of identifiable information may not always be possible to anticipate at the outset of your dissertation when thinking about issues of research ethics. This is not only a consideration for dissertations following a qualitative research design, but also a quantitative research design [for more information, see the article: research strategy and research ethics]. That your dissertation used a quantitative research design and a survey as your main research method. If the work is later published, adjustments would then need to be made to protect the confidentiality of are also a wide range of potential legal protections that may affect what research you can and cannot perform, how you must treated the data of research participants, and so forth. Since this varies from country-to-country, you should ask your dissertation supervisor or ethics committee for advice (or a legal professional). After all, how can participants know (a) that they are taking part in research and (b) what the research requires of them if they are being deceived? For this reason, in most circumstances, dissertation research should avoid any kinds of deceptive practices. However, this is not always the ion is sometimes a necessary component of covert research, which can be justified in some cases. Covert research reflects research where (a) the identity of the observer and/or (b) the purpose of the research is not known to participants.

Cases where you may choose to engage in covert research may include instances where:It is not feasible to let everyone in a particular research setting know what you are observation or knowledge of the purpose of the research may alter the particular phenomenon that is being 's take each of these in turn:It is not feasible to let everyone in a particular research setting know what you are feasibility, we are not talking about the cost of doing research. Instead, we mean that it is not practically possible to let everyone in a particular research setting know what you are doing. This is most likely to be the case where research involves observation, rather than direct contact with participants, especially in a public or online setting. You may not be intentionally trying to engage in deceptive practices, but clearly participants are not giving you their informed observation or knowledge of the purpose of the research may alter the particular phenomenon that is being observations or a participants? Knowledge of the true purpose of the research have the potential to alter the particular phenomenon that you are interested in, this is a major concern in terms of the quality of your ore, when you think about whether to engage in covert research and possibly deceptive practices, you should think about the extent to which this could be beneficial in your dissertation, not research in general; that is, everything from the research paradigm that guides your dissertation through to the data analysis techniques you choose affect issues of research ethics in your dissertation [see the article: research strategy and research ethics]. Some of the following scenarios where covert research may be considered justifiable:You are conducting a piece of research looking at prejudice. Furthermore, participants are not told that the research is about prejudice because it is felt that this could alter their responses. You feel that observation would be an appropriate research method in such a naturalistic setting. However, you feel that if employees knew that you were monitoring them, they may behave in a different way. Therefore, you may have received permission to go undercover or provide a story to explain why you are there, which is not the such covert research and deceptive practices, especially where used intentionally, can be viewed as controversial, it can be argued that they have a place in ing the right to the exception of those instances of covert observation where is not feasible to let everyone that is being observed know what you are doing, research participants should always have the right to withdraw from the research process. Furthermore, participants should have the right to withdraw at any stage in the research process. When a participant chooses to withdraw from the research process, they should not be pressured or coerced in any way to try and stop them from your supervisor and/or ethics committee expect you to complete an ethics consent form, it is likely that you will have to let participants know that they have the right to withdraw at any time [see the article: ethics consent form]. That you have read these basic principles of research ethics, you may want to understand how the research strategy you have chosen affects your approach to research ethics [see the article: research strategy and research ethics]. You will need to understand the impact of your research strategy on your approach to research ethics when writing up the research ethics section of your research strategy chapter (usually chapter three: research strategy). 2012 lund research tative tative tation ch questions & ts, constructs & ples of research are a number of ethical principles that should be taken into account when performing undergraduate and master's level dissertation research. Research ethics is specifically interested in the analysis of ethical issues that are raised when people are involved as participants in research. The second objective is to ensure that research is conducted in a way that serves interests of individuals, groups and/or society as a whole. Finally, the third objective is to examine specific research activities and projects for their ethical soundness, looking at issues such as the management of risk, protection of confidentiality and the process of informed the most part, research ethics has traditionally focused on issues in biomedical research. The application of research ethics to examine and evaluate biomedical research has been well developed over the last century and has influenced much of the existing statutes and guidelines for the ethical conduct of research. New and emerging methods of conducting research, such as auto-ethnography and participatory action research raise important but markedly different ethical issues and obligations for ch involving vulnerable persons, which may include children, persons with developmental or cognitive disabilities, persons who are institutionalized, the homeless or those without legal status, also raises unique issues in any research ch ethicists everywhere today are challenged by issues that reflect global concerns in other domains, such as the conduct of research in developing countries, the limits of research involving genetic material and the protection of privacy in light of advances in technology and internet canada, current debates and challenges in research ethics include the changing notions of what constitutes research and therefore requires formal ethics review, the oversight and monitoring of the work of research ethics boards (known as institutional review boards, in the u. At federal and provincial levels, the jurisdiction of research ethics boards in academic, clinical and corporate settings, the increasing multidisciplinarity of research collaborations and pursuits and challenges created by rigorous federal and provincial privacy legislation. This is by no means an exhaustive list of the kinds of live issues there are in research ethics today. Aside from the epistemological and philosophical issues in this dynamic field, research ethicists also face anecdotal issues at the level of individual research ethics reviews, systemic issues related to the institutions in which research ethics reviews are carried out and social, legal and political issues related to governance and oversight of research ethics this:twitterfacebookgooglelike this:like loading... For wikipedia's policy against directly including in articles the results of editor-conducted research, see wikipedia:no original zational ief sculpture "research holding the torch of knowledge" (1896) by olin levi warner. Research projects can be used to develop further knowledge on a topic, or in the example of a school research project, they can be used to further a student's research prowess to prepare them for future jobs or reports. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole. The primary purposes of basic research (as opposed to applied research) are documentation, discovery, interpretation, or the research and development (r&d) of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge. Approaches to research depend on epistemologies, which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences. There are several forms of research: scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social, business, marketing, practitioner research, life, technological, etc. Word research is derived from the middle french "recherche", which means "to go about seeking", the term itself being derived from the old french term "recerchier" a compound word from "re-" + "cerchier", or "sercher", meaning 'search'.

Broad definition of research is given by godwin colibao: "in the broadest sense of the word, the definition of research includes any gathering of data, information, and facts for the advancement of knowledge. Merriam-webster online dictionary defines research in more detail as "a studious inquiry or examination; especially investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws". For the wikipedia policy, see wikipedia:no original al research is research that is not exclusively based on a summary, review or synthesis of earlier publications on the subject of research. The purpose of the original research is to produce new knowledge, rather than to present the existing knowledge in a new form (e. In experimental work, it typically involves direct or indirect observation of the researched subject(s), e. In some subjects which do not typically carry out experimentation or analysis of this kind, the originality is in the particular way existing understanding is changed or re-interpreted based on the outcome of the work of the researcher. Degree of originality of the research is among major criteria for articles to be published in academic journals and usually established by means of peer review. This research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties of the world. Scientific research is funded by public authorities, by charitable organizations and by private groups, including many companies. Scientific research can be subdivided into different classifications according to their academic and application disciplines. Scientific research is a widely used criterion for judging the standing of an academic institution, but some argue that such is an inaccurate assessment of the institution, because the quality of research does not tell about the quality of teaching (these do not necessarily correlate). An example of research in the humanities is historical research, which is embodied in historical method. Research, also seen as 'practice-based research', can take form when creative works are considered both the research and the object of research itself. It is the debatable body of thought which offers an alternative to purely scientific methods in research in its search for knowledge and ific research[edit]. Article: scientific y scientific research being carried out at the microscopy laboratory of the idaho national ific research equipment at lly, research is understood to follow a certain structural process. Though step order may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following steps are usually part of most formal research, both basic and applied:Observations and formation of the topic: consists of the subject area of one's interest and following that subject area to conduct subject related research. The subject area should not be randomly chosen since it requires reading a vast amount of literature on the topic to determine the gap in the literature the researcher intends to narrow. The research will have to be justified by linking its importance to already existing knowledge about the esis: a testable prediction which designates the relationship between two or more tual definition: description of a concept by relating it to other ional definition: details in regards to defining the variables and how they will be measured/assessed in the ing of data: consists of identifying a population and selecting samples, gathering information from or about these samples by using specific research instruments. This careful language is used because researchers recognize that alternative hypotheses may also be consistent with the observations. Researchers can also use a null hypothesis, which states no relationship or difference between the independent or dependent ical research[edit]. Article: historical historian leopold von ranke (1795–1886), considered to be one of the founders of modern source-based historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use historical sources and other evidence to research and then to write history. Though items may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following concepts are part of most formal historical research:[13]. Controversial trend of artistic teaching becoming more academics-oriented is leading to artistic research being accepted as the primary mode of enquiry in art as in the case of other disciplines. 14] one of the characteristics of artistic research is that it must accept subjectivity as opposed to the classical scientific methods. As such, it is similar to the social sciences in using qualitative research and intersubjectivity as tools to apply measurement and critical analysis. Research has been defined by the university of dance and circus (dans och cirkushögskolan, doch), stockholm in the following manner - "artistic research is to investigate and test with the purpose of gaining knowledge within and for our artistic disciplines. To artist hakan topal, in artistic research, "perhaps more so than other disciplines, intuition is utilized as a method to identify a wide range of new and unexpected productive modalities". 19] most writers, whether of fiction or non-fiction books, also have to do research to support their creative work. Society for artistic research (sar) publishes the triannual journal for artistic research (jar),[21][22] an international, online, open access, and peer-reviewed journal for the identification, publication, and dissemination of artistic research and its methodologies, from all arts disciplines and it runs the research catalogue (rc),[23][24][25] a searchable, documentary database of artistic research, to which anyone can ia leavy addresses eight arts-based research (abr) genres: narrative inquiry, fiction-based research, poetry, music, dance, theatre, film, and visual art. 27] the florence principles relating to the salzburg principles and the salzburg recommendations of eua (european university association) name seven points of attention to specify the doctorate / phd in the arts compared to a scientific doctorate / phd the florence principles have been endorsed and are supported also by aec, cilect, cumulus and in conducting research[edit].

28] the hourglass model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information through the method of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the form of discussion and results. Of research ying the purpose of ining specific research ication of a conceptual framework, usually a set of hypotheses[30]. And interpreting the ing and evaluating icating the research findings and, possibly, steps generally represent the overall process; however, they should be viewed as an ever-changing iterative process rather than a fixed set of steps. 31] most research begins with a general statement of the problem, or rather, the purpose for engaging in the study. 32] the literature review identifies flaws or holes in previous research which provides justification for the study. Often, a literature review is conducted in a given subject area before a research question is identified. A gap in the current literature, as identified by a researcher, then engenders a research question. The researcher(s) then analyzes and interprets the data via a variety of statistical methods, engaging in what is known as empirical research. However, some researchers advocate for the reverse approach: starting with articulating findings and discussion of them, moving "up" to identification of a research problem that emerges in the findings and literature review. The reverse approach is justified by the transactional nature of the research endeavor where research inquiry, research questions, research method, relevant research literature, and so on are not fully known until the findings have fully emerged and been h rummel says, "... It is only when a range of tests are consistent over many kinds of data, researchers, and methods can one have confidence in the results. In meno talks about an inherent difficulty, if not a paradox, of doing research that can be paraphrased in the following way, "if you know what you're searching for, why do you search for it?! Research room at the new york public library, an example of secondary research in e hilleman is credited with saving more lives than any other scientist of the 20th century. Goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge or deepen understanding of a topic or issue. This process takes three main forms (although, as previously discussed, the boundaries between them may be obscure):Exploratory research, which helps to identify and define a problem or uctive research, which tests theories and proposes solutions to a problem or cal research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical are two major types of empirical research design: qualitative research and quantitative research. Researchers choose qualitative or quantitative methods according to the nature of the research topic they want to investigate and the research questions they aim to answer:This involves understanding human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior, by asking a broad question, collecting data in the form of words, images, video etc that is analyzed, and searching for themes. This type of research aims to investigate a question without attempting to quantifiably measure variables or look to potential relationships between variables. It is viewed as more restrictive in testing hypotheses because it can be expensive and time-consuming and typically limited to a single set of research subjects. Citation needed] qualitative research is often used as a method of exploratory research as a basis for later quantitative research hypotheses. Citation needed] qualitative research is linked with the philosophical and theoretical stance of social media posts are used for qualitative research. 37] statistics derived from quantitative research can be used to establish the existence of associative or causal relationships between variables. Quantitative research is linked with the philosophical and theoretical stance of quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and structured data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. Citation needed] quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory or being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of the research question is about people, participants may be randomly assigned to different treatments (this is the only way that a quantitative study can be considered a true experiment). Citation needed] if this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and situational characteristics to statistically control for their influence on the dependent, or outcome, variable. If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants. Primary data is data collected specifically for the research, such as through interviews or questionnaires. Secondary data is data that already exists, such as census data, which can be re-used for the research. Research that includes qualitative and quantitative elements, using both primary and secondary data, is becoming more common. For example, a researcher may choose to conduct a qualitative study and follow it up with a quantitative study to gain additional insights. Data has brought big impacts on research methods so that now many researchers do not put much effort into data collection; furthermore, methods to analyze easily available huge amounts of data have also been developed.

Empirical -empirical (theoretical) research is an approach that involves the development of theory as opposed to using observation and experimentation. Non-empirical research is not an absolute alternative to empirical research because they may be used together to strengthen a research approach. Typically empirical research produces observations that need to be explained; then theoretical research tries to explain them, and in so doing generates empirically testable hypotheses; these hypotheses are then tested empirically, giving more observations that may need further explanation; and so on. Simple example of a non-empirical task is the prototyping of a new drug using a differentiated application of existing knowledge; another is the development of a business process in the form of a flow chart and texts where all the ingredients are from established knowledge. Mathematics research does not rely on externally available data; rather, it seeks to prove theorems about mathematical ch ethics[edit]. Ethics involves the application of fundamental ethical principles to a variety of topics involving research, including scientific research. These include the design and implementation of research involving human experimentation, animal experimentation, various aspects of academic scandal, including scientific misconduct (such as fraud, fabrication of data and plagiarism), whistleblowing; regulation of research, etc. Research in the social sciences presents a different set of issues than those in medical research[43] and can involve issues of researcher and participant safety, empowerment and access to justice. The increasing participation of indigenous peoples as researchers has brought increased attention to the lacuna in culturally-sensitive methods of data collection. Non-western methods of data collection may not be the most accurate or relevant for research on non-western societies. 47] these limitations in turn result in the under-representation of scholars from periphery nations among the set of publications holding prestige status relative to the quantity and quality of those scholars' research efforts, and this under-representation in turn results in disproportionately reduced acceptance of the results of their efforts as contributions to the body of knowledge available nce of the open-access movement[edit]. Though western dominance seems to be prominent in research, some scholars, such as simon marginson, argue for "the need [for] a plural university world". 50] marginson argues that the east asian confucian model could take over the western could be due to changes in funding for research both in the east and the west. Focussed on emphasizing educational achievement, east asian cultures, mainly in china and south korea, have encouraged the increase of funding for research expansion. 50] in contrast, in the western academic world, notably in the united kingdom as well as in some state governments in the united states, funding cuts for university research have occurred, which some[who? Also: academic ranks, academics, and several national and private academic systems, the professionalisation of research has resulted in formal job present-day russia, the former soviet union and in some post-soviet states the term researcher (russian: научный сотрудник, nauchny sotrudnik) is both a generic term for a person who carried out scientific research, as well as a job position within the frameworks of the ussr academy of sciences, soviet universities, and in other research-oriented establishments. The term is also sometimes translated as research fellow, research associate, following ranks are known:Junior researcher (junior research associate). There is also a large body of research that exists in either a thesis or dissertation form. The kinds of publications that are accepted as contributions of knowledge or research vary greatly between fields, from the print to the electronic format. A study suggests that researchers should not give great consideration to findings that are not replicated frequently. Article: funding of funding for scientific research comes from three major sources: corporate research and development departments; private foundations, for example, the bill and melinda gates foundation; and government research councils such as the national institutes of health in the usa[55] and the medical research council in the uk. Many senior researchers (such as group leaders) spend a significant amount of their time applying for grants for research funds. These grants are necessary not only for researchers to carry out their research but also as a source of social psychology network provides a comprehensive list of u. Government and private foundation funding an charter for of words ending in raduate of countries by research and development ipatory action logical research ch-intensive y for artistic ne of the history of scientific method. Oecd (2015), frascati manual 2015: guidelines for collecting and reporting data on research and experimental development, the measurement of scientific, technological and innovation activities, oecd publishing, paris. Resolving ethical challenges when researching with minority and vulnerable populations: lgbtiq victims of violence, harassment and bullying". Perspectives on artistic research and academia (chapter 11: the case of the journal for artistic research), leiden: leiden university press. Hughes, rolf: "leap into another kind: international developments in artistic research," in swedish research council, ed. Introduction to the responsible conduct of research | on being a scientist: a guide to responsible conduct in research (third ed. Commentary on cultural diversity across the pacific: the dominance of western theories, models, research and practice in psychology".

Handbook of research methods in military studies new york: rsity has learning resources about y resources ces in your ces in other dictionary definition of research at ions related to research at ries: researchresearch methodsknowledgescientific methodhidden categories: articles with russian-language external linkscs1 maint: multiple names: authors listuse dmy dates from september 2017all articles with unsourced statementsarticles with unsourced statements from december 2012wikipedia articles in need of updating from may 2017all wikipedia articles in need of updatingall articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrasesarticles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from february 2017articles with limited geographic scope from january 2014articles containing russian-language textwikipedia articles with gnd logged intalkcontributionscreate accountlog pagecontentsfeatured contentcurrent eventsrandom articledonate to wikipediawikipedia out wikipediacommunity portalrecent changescontact links hererelated changesupload filespecial pagespermanent linkpage informationwikidata itemcite this a bookdownload as pdfprintable dia commonswikiquotewikiversity.