Ethnographic research design
It is designed to explore cultural phenomena where the researcher observes society from the point of view of the subject of the study. Franz boas (1858-1942), bronislaw malinowski (1858—1942), ruth benedict and margaret mead (1901-1978), were a group of researchers from the united states who contributed the idea of cultural relativism to the literature. Boas's approach focused on the use of documents and informants, whereas, malinowski stated that a researcher should be engrossed with the work for long periods in the field and do a participant observation by living with the informant and experiencing their way of life. Known as the father of history had significant works on the cultures of various peoples beyond the hellenic realm such as nations in scythia, which earned him the title "barbarian lover" and may have produced the first ethnographic of ethnography[edit]. Characterized by van maanen (1988), it reflects a particular instance taken by the researcher toward the individual being studied. Ethnography: is a kind of ethnographic research in which the creators advocate for the liberation of groups which are marginalized in society. Critical researchers typically are politically minded people who look to take a stand of opposition to inequality and domination. The ethnography can be of the entire group or a subpart of involves engaging in extensive field work where data collection is mainly by interviews, symbols, artifacts, observations, and many other sources of researcher in ethnography type of research looks for patterns of the group's mental activities, that is their ideas and beliefs expressed through language or other activities, and how they behave in their groups as expressed through their actions that the researcher ethnography, the researcher gathers what is available, what is normal, what it is that people do, what they say, and how they work. Perhaps how the group works need to be described, or a critical ethnography can expose issues such as power, hegemony, and advocacy for certain groups (qualitative inquiry and research design, 95). Types of information typically needed in ethnography are collected by going to the research site, respecting the daily lives of individuals at the site and collecting a wide variety of materials. Field issues of respect, reciprocity, deciding who owns the data and others are central to ethnography (qualitative inquiry and research design, 95). The researcher begins to compile a detailed description of the culture-sharing group, by focusing on a single event, on several activities, or on the group over a prolonged period of a working set of rules or generalizations as to how the culture-sharing group works as the final product of this analysis. The final product is a holistic cultural portrait of the group that incorporates the views of the participants (emic) as well as the views of the researcher (etic). Ethnographic method is different from other ways of conducting social science approach due to the following reasons:An ethnographer conducting field interviews, valašské muzeum v přírodě. It is conducted in the settings in which real people actually live, rather than in laboratories where the researcher controls the elements of the behaviors to be observed or is personalized. It is conducted by researchers who are in the day-to-day, face-to-face contact with the people they are studying and who are thus both participants in and observers of the lives under is multifactorial.
Ethnographic study design
It is conducted by a researcher who intends to interact with people they are studying for an extended period of time. It is conducted by a researcher whose interpretations and findings may be expounded on by the study’s participants while conclusions are still in the process of is holistic. It is conducted so as to yield the fullest possible portrait of the group under can also be used in other methodological frameworks, for instance, an action research program of study where one of the goals is to change and improve the situation. The goal is to collect data in such a way that the researcher imposes a minimal amount of personal bias in the data. Secondary research and document analysis are also used to provide insight into the research topic. 14] in the 21st century, anthropology focuses more on the study of people in urban settings and the use of kinship charts is seldom order to make the data collection and interpretation transparent, researchers creating ethnographies often attempt to be "reflexive". Reflexivity refers to the researcher's aim "to explore the ways in which [the] researcher's involvement with a particular study influences, acts upon and informs such research". Ethnographic research can range from a realist perspective, in which behavior is observed, to a constructivist perspective where understanding is socially constructed by the researcher and subjects. Research can range from an objectivist account of fixed, observable behaviors to an interpretive narrative describing "the interplay of individual agency and social structure. 18] critical theory researchers address "issues of power within the researcher-researched relationships and the links between knowledge and power. Ethnographic method is used across a range of different disciplines, primarily by anthropologists but also occasionally by sociologists. Cultural studies, (european) ethnology, sociology, economics, social work, education, design, psychology, computer science, human factors and ergonomics, ethnomusicology, folkloristics, religious studies, geography, history, linguistics, communication studies, performance studies, advertising, nursing, urban planning, usability, political science,[20] social movement,[21] and criminology are other fields which have made use of al and social anthropology[edit]. Anthropology and social anthropology were developed around ethnographic research and their canonical texts, which are mostly ethnographies: e. 23] ethnographers study and interpret culture, its universalities, and its variations through the ethnographic study based on fieldwork. Aw malinowski among trobriand of the ethnographic collection of the međimurje county museum in croatia. Geertz, while still following something of a traditional ethnographic outline, moved outside that outline to talk about "webs" instead of "outlines"[30] of cultural anthropology, there are several subgenres of ethnography.
Beginning in the 1950s and early 1960s, anthropologists began writing "bio-confessional" ethnographies that intentionally exposed the nature of ethnographic research. Writing culture helped bring changes to both anthropology and ethnography often described in terms of being 'postmodern,' 'reflexive,' 'literary,' 'deconstructive,' or 'poststructural' in nature, in that the text helped to highlight the various epistemic and political predicaments that many practitioners saw as plaguing ethnographic representations and practices. That is, the ethnographer cannot escape the personal viewpoint in creating an ethnographic account, thus making any claims of objective neutrality highly problematic, if not altogether impossible. 36] this exploration of the relationship between writer, audience, and subject has become a central tenet of contemporary anthropological and ethnographic practice. In certain instances, active collaboration between the researcher(s) and subject(s) has helped blend the practice of collaboration in ethnographic fieldwork with the process of creating the ethnographic product resulting from the research. Urban sociology, atlanta university (now clark-atlanta university), and the chicago school, in particular, are associated with ethnographic research, with some well-known early examples being the philadelphia negro (1899) by w. But even though many sub-fields and theoretical perspectives within sociology use ethnographic methods, ethnography is not the sine qua non of the discipline, as it is in cultural ication studies[edit]. In the 1960s and 1970s, ethnographic research methods began to be widely used by communication scholars. As the purpose of ethnography is to describe and interpret the shared and learned patterns of values, behaviors, beliefs, and language of a culture-sharing group, harris, (1968), also agar (1980) note that ethnography is both a process and an outcome of the research. Studies such as gerry philipsen's analysis of cultural communication strategies in a blue-collar, working-class neighborhood on the south side of chicago, speaking 'like a man' in teamsterville, paved the way for the expansion of ethnographic research in the study of rs of communication studies use ethnographic research methods to analyze communicative behaviors and phenomena. Ethnographic work in communication studies seeks to explain "how" ordinary methods/practices/performances construct the ordinary actions used by ordinary people in the accomplishments of their identities. 39] often this type of research results in a case study or field study such as an analysis of speech patterns at a protest rally, or the way firemen communicate during "down time" at a fire station. American anthropologist george spindler was a pioneer in applying the ethnographic methodology to the pologists such as daniel miller and mary douglas have used ethnographic data to answer academic questions about consumers and consumption. In this sense, tony salvador, genevieve bell, and ken anderson describe design ethnography as being "a way of understanding the particulars of daily life in such a way as to increase the success probability of a new product or service or, more appropriately, to reduce the probability of failure specifically due to a lack of understanding of the basic behaviors and frameworks of consumers. Companies make increasing use of ethnographic methods to understand consumers and consumption, or for new product development (such as video ethnography). Ethnographic methodology is not usually evaluated in terms of philosophical standpoint (such as positivism and emotionalism).
Which is a method dedicated entirely to field work, is aimed at gaining a deeper insight of a certain people's knowledge and social raphy's advantages are:It can open up certain experiences during group research that other research methods fail to s that are taken for granted can be highlighted and can tap into intuitive and deep human understanding of and interpretations of (by the ethnographer) the accounts of informants (those who are being studied), which goes far beyond what quantitative research can do in terms of extracting raphy allows people outside of a culture (whether of a primitive tribe or of a corporation's employees) to learn about its members' practices, motives, understandings, and r, there are certain challenges or limitations for the ethnographic method:Deep expertise is required: ethnographers must accumulate knowledge about the methods and domains of interest, which can take considerable training and ivity: the ethnographer is an outsider and must exercise discretion and caution to avoid offending, alienating or harming those being : negotiating access to field sites and participants can be time-consuming and difficult. And cost: research can involve prolonged time in the field, particularly because building trust with participants is usually necessary for obtaining rich : ethnographers bring their own experience to bear in pursuing questions to ask and reviewing data, which can lead to biases in directions of inquiry and ptive approach: ethnography relies heavily on storytelling and the presentation of critical incidents, which is inevitably selective and viewed as a weakness by those used to the scientific approaches of hypothesis testing, quantification and alan fine argues that the nature of ethnographic inquiry demands that researchers deviate from formal and idealistic rules or ethics that have come to be widely accepted in qualitative and quantitative approaches in research. Many of these ethical assumptions are rooted in positivist and post-positivist epistemologies that have adapted over time but are apparent and must be accounted for in all research paradigms. These ethical dilemmas are evident throughout the entire process of conducting ethnographies, including the design, implementation, and reporting of an ethnographic study. Essentially, fine maintains that researchers are typically not as ethical as they claim or assume to be — and that "each job includes ways of doing things that would be inappropriate for others to know". Is not necessarily casting blame at ethnographic researchers but tries to show that researchers often make idealized ethical claims and standards which in are inherently based on partial truths and self-deceptions. 47] based on these assertions, fine establishes three conceptual clusters in which ethnographic ethical dilemmas can be situated: "classic virtues", "technical skills", and "ethnographic self". Debate surrounding the issue of ethics arose following revelations about how the ethnographer napoleon chagnon conducted his ethnographic fieldwork with the yanomani people of south there is no international standard on ethnographic ethics, many western anthropologists look to the american anthropological association for guidance when conducting ethnographic work. 49] the code of ethics recognizes that sometimes very close and personal relationship can sometimes develop from doing ethnographic work. 49] the association acknowledges that the code is limited in scope; ethnographic work can sometimes be multidisciplinary, and anthropologists need to be familiar with ethics and perspectives of other disciplines as well. 50] the eight-page code of ethics outlines ethical considerations for those conducting research, teaching, application and dissemination of results, which are briefly outlined below. Research-when conducting research anthropologists need to be aware of the potential impacts of the research on the people and animals they study. Of results-when disseminating results of an ethnography, "[a]nthropologists have an ethical obligation to consider the potential impact of both their research and the communication or dissemination of the results of their research on all directly or indirectly involved. 55] research results of ethnographies should not be withheld from participants in the research if that research is being observed by other people. The kindly ethnographer" – most ethnographers present themselves as being more sympathetic than they are, which aids in the research process, but is also deceptive. When ethnographers find they intensely dislike individuals encountered in the research, they may crop them out of the findings.
The honest ethnographer" – if research participants know the research goals, their responses will likely be skewed. The unobtrusive ethnographer" – as a "participant" in the scene, the researcher will always have an effect on the communication that occurs within the research site. Following are commonly misconceived conceptions of ethnographers:"the candid ethnographer" – where the researcher personally situates within the ethnography is ethically problematic. The chaste ethnographer" – when ethnographers participate within the field, they invariably develop relationships with research subjects/participants. These relationships are sometimes not accounted for within the reporting of the ethnography, although they may influence the research findings. The individual skills of an ethnographer influence what appears to be the value of the research. Denzin, ethnographers should consider the following eight principles when observing, recording, and sampling data:The groups should combine symbolic meanings with patterns of e the world from the point of view of the subject, while maintaining the distinction between everyday and scientific perceptions of the group's symbols and their meanings with the social methodology should highlight phases of process, change, and act should be a type of symbolic concepts that would avoid casual es of studies that can use an ethnographic approach[edit]. Of ethnography: a form of ethnography that involves conducting ethnographic studies on the ipant observation. From 'reading over the shoulders of natives' to 'reading alongside natives', literally: toward a collaborative and reciprocal ethnography", in journal of anthropologcal research, 57(2):137-149. Of the most influential ethnographies and anthropology raphic praxis in industry , michael (2003) a synthesis of ethnographic on of anthropology, american museum of natural history - over 160,000 objects from pacific, north american, african, asian ethnographic collections with images and detailed description, linked to the original catalogue pages, field notebooks, and photographs are available archive of african raphic material collection from northern anatolia and caucasus -photo zealand museum images of objects from pacific sity of pennsylvania's "what is ethnography? University library southeast asia raphy for the masses 2cv's practical application of ethnography in market polar research institute arctic material culture , otis tufton (1905). A non-profit courses by r sional college icates of transferable credit & get your degree degrees by ical and ications and ry arts and l arts and ic and repair l and health ortation and and performing a degree that fits your schools by degree degree raduate schools by sity video counseling & job interviewing tip networking ching careers info by outlook by & career research : ethnographic design: definition, advantages & often researchers are interested in individuals, sometimes they are more interested in the characteristics of a community at large. In this lesson, we'll look at ethnographic research and its advantages and & worksheet - pros and cons of ethnographic to student error occurred trying to load this refreshing the page, or contact customer must create an account to continue the rest of this video for you a student or a teacher? Definition & study design: definition, advantages & ages & disadvantages of various experimental ical research design: definition, advantages & tanding linguistic al vs. Interpretive research archival research & secondary records to collect social research observation: definition & ch methodologies: quantitative, qualitative & mixed ipant observation: definition and and emic world views in s to internal validity i: history, instrumentation & subject to choose a research method & cal social theory: marx & durkheim on s to external validity: sample characteristics, stimulus characteristics & experimental tative vs. Qualitative ch methods in psychology: homework help ch methods in psychology: tutoring ional psychology: help and ional psychology: tutoring psychology: tutoring psychology: homework help al psychology: help and al psychology: tutoring al psychology: homework help abnormal psychology: study guide & test introductory psychology exam: study guide & test introduction to educational psychology: study guide & test school psychology: homeschool human growth and development: study guide & test al psychology: certificate uction to psychology: certificate growth and development: certificate uction to educational psychology: certificate uction to psychology: homework help logy 104: social e is a teacher and holds an ma in english education and is in progress on her phd in often researchers are interested in individuals, sometimes they are more interested in the characteristics of a community at large.
In this lesson, we'll look at ethnographic research and its advantages and ative researchcal's father was a prosecutor, and when cal was a kid, he used to sit in the courtroom for hours watching his father work to put criminals away. These are all good questions, and there are many ways that cal can answer them through research. One way that cal can approach these questions is by doing qualitative research, which involves examining non-numerical data to find answers to his questions. Let's look closer at one qualitative research method - ethnography - and its strengths and limitations. Essentially, cal is conducting an ethnographic study, which is focused on describing a culture's characteristics. Observations, interviews and documents can all be a good source of information for ethnographic researchers. The biggest challenge that faces those who do ethnographic research is the balance between getting close to their subjects and maintaining distance. But they also have to maintain a certain amount of distance in order to be able to take a clear-headed, scientific view of their research. That same observation could come from many other types of research; a researcher might notice that when he looks at crime rates, for example. Crunching numbers and examining crime rates won't tell you why children of incarcerated criminals lean more towards vigilante justice, but cal's ethnographic research 70,000 lessons in all major free access for 5 days, just create an obligation, cancel a subject to preview related courses:Another strength of ethnography is that it tends to look at the big picture and takes a holistic view. For example, perhaps a researcher examines the crime rates and notices that kids of those incarcerated end up as vigilantes a lot. As we discussed, researchers have to find a balance between being close to or part of a community and maintaining scientific distance. Though the big picture, holistic view is a strength, it can also turn into a problem if a researcher looks too broadly at the community. One type of qualitative research is an ethnographic study, which examines the characteristics of a community. However, there are some limitations as well, including the fact that researchers must balance being involved in a community and keeping a scientific distance and that some results can be too general to be of any use. Learning outcomesfollowing this video lesson, you should be able to:Define qualitative n what an ethnographic study be the strengths and limitations of ethnographic the rest of this video for you a student or a teacher?
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Department of rs engage their qualitative research as 'ethnography' is built upon the social science specialism known as 'anthropology'. Is a description retation of a cultural or social group or system, and the es the group's:The researcher also studies the:Meanings of e-sharing of cultural groups in a natural setting, over a prolonged data collection observation and ethnographic research study that studies people in their natural is a descriptive account life and culture within a defined social system, and is often thought 'a portrait of a people'. Effect, it is concerned with ic view of a culture - including its shared meanings, patterns raphic involves the description and retation of cultural aim of the ethnographic researcher is to learn from. Rather than study) members of a cultural intention of the cher in relation to the members of a particular cultural group is tand their world view as they define ed in ethnographic collection always takes analysis is ages/ with all research methodologies,There are inbuilt advantages, and there are this type of y, developing a theory is a process, and as new data emerge, es may prove to be inadequate. The researchers view of to be looked at and reported on may change and explanations of what on may be supplanted by ones seem to fit better. In other words, the is one of several distinguishing feature of this qualitative object of ethnographic to discover the cultural knowledge that people hold in their minds, how employed in social interaction and the consequences such employment may hold. No attempt to generalise gs beyond the case itself should be made, since statistical ng is rarely a feature of ethnographic research - rather the intention is to tanding of a specific case. However, hammersley (1992) suggests cal generalisation is possible in some cases if typicality of a tion at a given time can be type of qualitative research is story telling:Snapshots of peoples lives and relationships, inner thoughts, feelings dictions, and the goal of ch is to combine the view of the insider with that of an outsider be a social raphy lends ularly to the study of some sub-cultures and institutions, such as , sex workers and the police, because overall it is a method of ch, involving spending considerable periods of time with a ity or group of people. It describes, either explicitly or implicitly, e of the qualitative research, the role of the researcher(s), the stages ch, and the method of data analysis. Here, four of the major ches are ethnographic approach to qualitative research comes largely from the field pology. As ed theory, there is no preset limiting of what will be observed and no real in an ethnographic enology is sometimes considered a philosophical perspective as well as ch to qualitative methodology.
That is, the phenomenologist wants to understand world appears to research can also be considered either a broad approach to qualitative a method of gathering qualitative data. The field researcher typically takes extensive field notes which uently coded and analyzed in a variety of ed theory is a qualitative research approach that was originally developed and strauss in the 1960s. The research begins raising of generative questions which help to guide the research but are ed to be either static or confining. Initially one does open coding,Considering the data in minute detail while developing some initial , one moves to more selective coding where one systematically codes t to a core g is a process for recording the thoughts and ideas of the researcher evolve throughout the study. This integrative work is best done in group sessions ent members of the research team are able to interact and share ideas to ally one approaches conceptually dense theory as new observation new linkages which lead to revisions in the theory and more data collection. Trochim, all rights se a printed copy of the research methods revised: 10/20/ble of contentsnavigatingfoundationssamplingmeasurementconstruct validityreliabilitylevels of measurementsurvey researchscalingqualitative measuresthe qualitative debatequalitative dataqualitative approachesqualitative methodsqualitative validityunobtrusive measuresdesignanalysiswrite-upappendicessearch.