Research methodology notes

Related slideshares at ch methodology hed on mar 24, you sure you want message goes you for sharing..... Lecturer at leading university in g university in you sure you want message goes you sure you want message goes and marketing western® hotels & you sure you want message goes engine valve ltd at rane you sure you want message goes nance and hardware officer at umwalimu ch methodology notes. It is the voyage of discovery acc to bulmer, research is primarily committed to establishing systematic, reliable and valid knowledge about the social world. Research methods: may be understood as all those methods or techniques that are used by a researcher for conducting a research depending upon the methods. Statistical compilation, references, abstracts, guides manipulation (handle with skill) (2) field research: observation, questionnaires, personal, group or telephonic interviews, case study. In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem logically. When we talk of research methodology, we not only talk of research methods but also consider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and explain why we are using a particular method or we are not using a particular method or technique so that research results are capable of being evaluated either by the researcher or others. Importance of knowing the subject – research methodology: 1) a student preparing himself for a career of carrying out research as his profession – - will be trained better to do research. To qualify a research or study: to be a good or perfect one, the research adapted should process certain characteristics, it must as far as possible be 1) controlled 2) rigorous 3) systematic 4) valid 5) verifiable 6) empirical 7) critical 1. Types of research research can be classified from the view point or perspectives as, from the view point application objective inquiry mode 1) pure research 1) descriptive 1) quantitative research 2) applied research 2) correlative 2) qualitative research 3) exploratory 4) explanatory 1) pure research: (basic or fundamental research) gathering, knowledge is termed as ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research. Applied vs fundamental based on the objectives of research: 1) descriptive research: • survey or fact finding enquires of different kinds. Here the variable influencing the research has no control or the researcher has no control over the variables. 2) correlative research: • goes on to discover the existing relationship or interdependence between two or more aspects / variables. Research problem is workers turnover analytical research: the researcher has to use facts / information already existing and analyze these data to make a critical evaluation. Descriptive vs analytical research: explanatory research: attempts to clarify or explain why and how, any particular research problem arises and can be solved. Based on the inquiry mode: 1) quantitative research: • relates to aspects that can be quantified and expressed in terms of quantity. In this type of research, the objectives, design, sample and all the other factors influencing the research is pre determined. The research problem and its solution will be expressed in terms of quantity and hence statistical and economic analysis is adapted in this type of research. Eg: behaviour science apart from the above, other types of research are, conceptual research: research related to some abstract idea or theory • used by philosophers or thinkers for developing new concepts. The result obtained by adapting empirical research is considered to be most powerful (evidence enclosed) based on the time consumed to complete a particular research, a) one time research: restricted to a single time period. Qualities of a researcher top 10 qualities of a researcher 1) ananalytical mind: constant analysis on a variety of factors. When a research scientist feel defeated or completely lost, he needs immense courage and the sense of conviction (found guilty) significance or importance of search 1) doubt is better than over confidence for it leads to inquiry, inquiry leads to invention. Eg:- role of research in : 1) econ omics: researches done on applied (production and sales of goods in a profitable manner) economics is increasing in modern days. Business sectors have become more complex, they face several operational problems to solve this problems, research is carried on. Budget a formulation depends on the analysis of needs & desires of the people, available of revenues needs research. A) problems research: investigation of the present structure and development of the market – relating to purchase, production, promotion and sales. B) operational research: relates to application of logical, mathematical and analytical techniques – to solve market problems – there by minimize cost and profit maximization. Formulating the research problem:- a) the formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem thus constitutes the first step in a scientific inquiry. Put the problem into specific terms this step is of greatest importance in the entire research process. Neiswanger states,  the statement of the objective of the research problem is of basic importance because, (i) it determines the data which are to be collected (ii) characteristics of the relevant data (iii) choice of techniques to be used in these explorations (iv) frame a final report step ii extensive literature survey:  a brief summary of the problem should be written down. State in clear terms the working hypothesis (basic idea of the research problem)  it is a tentative assumption in order to test to logical or empirical consequences. Hypothesis should be very specific and very well limited to the place of research in hand because it has to be tested. Hypothesis guides the researched by limiting the area of research and keep him on the right track. Step iv: preparing the research design:15 research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conduction. The function of the research design is to provide relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. It provides an outline of what the researcher is going to do in terms of 1) framing the hypothesis, 2) its operational implications and 3) finally data analysis the research design highlights certain decision, 1) the nature of the study 2) purpose of the study 3) location where the study would be conducted 4) the nature of data required 5) from where the data would be collected 6) the techniques of data collection that would be used 7) what time period the study would cover 8) the type of sample design that would be used 9) the method of data analysis that would be adapted 10)the manner in which the report would be prepared type of research design : 4 types 1) sampling research design : deal with selection of relevant items 2) observational research design: deals with the observations (field observations) that is to be made. The sample design to be used in a research study must be decided by the researcher considering the nature of the study.

In experimental means, when a researcher conducts a research, some quantitative measurements are observed, based on which, he examines the truth of the underlying hypothesis. In case of surveys, data are collected by 1) by observations 2) through personnel interview 3) through telephone interviews 4) by mailing of questionnaires 5) through schedules / enumerators the researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking in account the 1) nature of investigation. Analysis of data :  after the data are collected the researcher turns to the task of analyzing the data the analysis of data require closely related operations, like ‘coding, editing & tabulation’. Research design:19  the most important step after defining the ‘research problem’ is preparing the research design  research design is the conceptual structure within which the research is conducted. Research design provides an answer to the question, what the researcher is going to do with regards to framing hypothesis, its operational implications and how to analyse the data? Research design: - decisions highlights certain decisions, 1) nature of the study 2) purpose of the study 3) location where the study would be conducted 4) nature of “data” required 5) from where the “data” can be collected 6) time period of the study 7) type of sample design to be used 8) techniques of data collection 9) methods of data analysis 10)preparation of report. Research design may be sub divided into,20 1) sampling design: deals with, the method of ‘selecting items’ for the study. Research design – features : 1) helps to identify the type and source of information needed for the study. Concepts relating to research design 1) dependent and independent variables : variables : a magnitude that varies is known as “variable” continuous variable : values that can be expressed even in decimal poins are known as continuous variables eg: age (4 years 3 months) height (5. The influence caused by the extraneous variable on the dependent value is technically known as “experimental error”  a research study or a research design should always be framed in such a manner that the influence of ‘extraneous variables’ on the. Research hypothesis: when the formulated hypothesis is tested by adopting scientific methods, it is known as research hypothesis. Experimental & non experimental hypothesis testing:  when the objective of the research is to test the hypothesis, it is research hypothesis. Research in which the independent variable are (handled with skill) manipulated, it is experimental hypothesis testing. Experimental & control groups:  when a group is exposed to usual conditions in an experimental hypothesis, research it is control groups. Eg : animal testing types of research design there are three different types of research design, 1) exploratory research design:  is a “formulative research design”  main purpose is the discovery of ideas & insights  should be flexible enough considering different dimensions of the problem under study. 2) descriptive and diagnostic research design:24  descriptive research design is concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular individual or a group. Study concerned with narration of facts or characters related to an individual, group or institution are descriptive research studies. Diagnostic research design determines the frequency with which a variable occurs or its relationship with another variables. Research design should be rigid (no flexibility) 3) hypothesis testing research design:  test the hypothesis of causal relationship between two or more variables. Adopt procedure that not only reduce bias but enhance reliability – and facilitates deriving inferences (results) about the research problem. No experimental error should be allowed  should yield maximum information  research problem should be viewed from different angles or dimensions. The choice of research design depends on,  nature of the research problem  objectives of the research problem  skills / ability of the researcher  methods of gathering information  availability of monetary support  time schedule hypothesis a research hypothesis is a predictive statement, which is capable of being ‘tested’ using scientific methods, which involves independent and dependent valuables. Of variables null hypothesis ho : u = 100 alternative hypothesis ha : u = 100 ha : u > 100 ha : u < 100 aspects to be considered while formulating null hypothesis 1) the researcher always tries to reject null hypothesis since alternative hypothesis should be proved. It means the researcher takes a risk of rejecting null hypothesis (ho) by 5% when ho is actually true. Type i and type ii errors (i) researcher may reject ho, when it is true – type i error (which must have been accepted). Ii) researcher may accept ho, when it is false – type ii error (which must have been rejected) 5. Iii) deciding the distribution to use:The neuroscience of course - linkedin 365: powerpoint essential course - linkedin course - linkedin uction to research ch methods: basic concepts and tion and types of ch methodology lecture for master & phd 'a othman management & research sent successfully.. Now customize the name of a clipboard to store your can see my ose this panelcollectionscs categoriesacm/ieee are herehome » computer science oer portal: collections » university of indonesia opencourseware (ui ocw) » research ch methodology: lecture notes. This panelcollectionscs categoriesacm/ieee are herehome » computer science oer portal: collections » university of indonesia opencourseware (ui ocw) » research ch methodology: lecture notes. Methodology full notesuploaded by u2b11517related interestssampling (statistics)research designsurvey methodologyexperimentdesign of experimentsrating and stats4. 52)document actionsdownloadshare or embed documentembedview morecopyright: attribution non-commercial (by-nc)download as pdf, txt or read online from scribdflag for inappropriate contentresearch meaningresearch is a serious academic activity with a set of objectives to explain or analyse or understand a problem or finding solution(s) for the problem(s) by adopting a systematic approach in collecting, organizing and analyzing the information relating to the problem. Research –definition “research ; may be defined as the systematic and objective analyze and recording of controlled observation that may lead to the developments or generalizations, principles or theories, resulting in prediction and possibility ultimate control of events”. Some people say that research is a on effort to know “more and more about less and less”. To clifford woody, research comprises, defining and redefining problems formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at as carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating a hypothesis. Research may also be defined ”any organized enquiry discussed and carried out to provide information for solving a problem”. Of research:Research is a conscious approach to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered by applying scientific procedure. Objectives are like guide points in research, that the researcher does not nose his focus it is also believed that the objectives determine the nature of data to be compiled, the scope of collection, target group sample size and several other crucial aspects which ultimately decide the success or failure, adequacy or in failure, adequacy or research.

Professor & head in ining frequency ives of research develops s characteristic ccharacteristicreveal s ccccccccccharacteris it develops focus: the research may be to understand for become familiar with some tic phenomena or to get to know more in depth it. For example, since the days of steam engine, the research continued to come up with more powerful locomotive which could be operated with alternative sources of energy like diesel, electricity etc. It reveals characteristics: to clearly reveal the characteristics of an individual or a situation or a group like a society is another type of research objective. In social research one of the major areas of repeated and continuous research is analysis of poverty and unemployment. This type of research is mainly to determine the relationship between various factors so that necessary policy options could be framed. Hence the study of casual relationship might help in formulation of , professor & head in ia of good research (characteristics)  research is half complete, when objective or purposes of it are clearly spelt out. It is necessary that every step followed in the process of research is explained fully. This is because any other person who wants to repeat such a work to achieve further improvement on lest the validity of the research work should be able to do it. The research should be honest in reporting the facts and revealing the flaws in the work. Limitations should be frankly fication of research applied research exploratory descriptive mental ll analytical historical , professor & head in ental (or) basic research:Pure or basic research is a search for broad principles and synthesis without and immediate utilization objectives. John robinson‟s imperfect competition and chamberlains monopolistic d (or)action research: applied research also known as action research is associated with particular project and problem. Such research, being of practical value may release to current activity (or) immediate practical situation it aims at finding a solution for an immediate problems facing a society practically all social science research undertaken in india is of the applied variety and more particularly of the type which helps formulation of policy. Descriptive research: it is designed to describe something such as demographic characteristics of consumers who use the product. This is very significant because, the researcher would be able to understand himself clearly the problem to be studied. With the possibility of direct contract with the respondent, the researcher is able to elicit all the relevant information and eliminate irrelevant , professor & head in mba. Historical approach makes research possible as it is firmly believed that once we understand the past. Hence historical research provides the insight into the past and facilitates looking into the future. Historical research:Required to plan and execute the field the name suggests in this approach historical data is given importance to undertake analysis and interpret the tions:  unless the researcher is experienced there is every possibility of the approach being exploratory study is conducted in the following situations. The following are the usual methods of conducting exploratory research  literature survey  experience survey and  analysis of insight stimulating cases. To gather data about the practical problems for carrying out research on particular conjectural statements. The major emphasis is on the discovery of ideas and literature search in fast and economic way for researchers to develop a better understanding of a problem area in which othey have limited . Reports of previous research projects conducted problems incompletely but will be of great help to provide a director to further is of insight stimulating cases:(case study approach). The following methods are undertaken in case this manner the researcher is able to successfully indicate to what extent various factors included in the study are tions:    a significant limitation of this approach is that unless the researcher is experienced he might ignore very important aspects. It is often said that case studies are based on the observations of the mental research:This is a very scientific approach. The researcher is able to state what percentage change in the final food (a) is explained by x. This is one of the best methods of measuring the relationship between of experimental approach (research)  . Approach is more logical and consistent that the conclusions drawn but of research based on this approach is well received. Following this approach researchers could indicate clearly the areas of future tions of experimental approach (research)  unless a researcher is well experienced and trained in model building this approach can not be easily tion study is one type of applied research it is made for assessing the effectiveness of social or economic programmes implemented ( is not possible to study the changes occurring in these attitudes over a period in response to changes in the particular products marketing min. It is a method of research involving collection of data directly from a population or a sample there of at particular fact research is based on observation made by inquiry in which the researcher does not have direct control of independent variables because their outcome have already occurred. This kind of research based on a scientific and analytical examination of dependent and independent variables. Panel research: generally the survey research is valid for one time period which is known as „st udy period‟ and they do not reflect changes occurring time. The analysis of data may be made by using simple or complex statistical techniques depending upon the objectives of the study this type of research has the advantage of greater scope in the sense that a larger volume of information can be collected from a very large types ex-post facto sor & head in mba.. Formulating the research problem  extensive literature survey  developing the hypothesis  preparing the research design  determining the sample design  collecting the data  analysis of data  hypothesis testing and  preparation of ating the research problem. What is a research problem a problem can be called a research problem if it satisfies the following condition. In research process the first and foremost step is selecting and defining a research problem. It must be worth studying the study of the problem must be socially useful it should be a problem untouched by other researchers or even if touched must be in need of further research ch ch is a ic journals etc. Features:  it should be clear and precise  it should be capable of being tested  it should state the relation between variables  it should be limited in scope and must be specific  it should be stated in simple terms normally a hypothesis will be developed in the following ways:  the researcher has to consult and deliberate with colleagues and experts about the problem.

The earlier studies if any which are similar to the study in hand should be carefully selection of the problem the researcher should take into consideration of the following factors:  researchers‟ interest  topic of significance  researcher‟s resource  time availability  availability of data  feasibility of the study  benefits of the research review of literature: after defining the problem the researcher should undertake an extensive literature survey connected with the . Research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine research purpose and economy in procedure. It should specifically mention the type of approach to the study  it should also includes the time and cost budget since most studies are suffered by these two constraints: broadly there could be four different types of research design: viz. However the qualities of a good research would differ from study to study:  it should be flexible  it should help to minimize bias at every stage  it should facilitate collection and analysis  it should be closely linked with objectives of the study  it is a plan that specifies the sources and type of inform relevant to the research ing the research design: after developing hypothesis the researcher has prepare a research ch design would answer the following questions. A research design could be defined as the blue print specifying every stage of action in the course of ational design: if the study makes use of observational technique then what type of observation technique would be used. Research design may be classified as: exploratory research design descriptive and diagnostic research design experimental research design conclusive research ining the sample design: a ng design concents of research design statistical design operational design observational ng design: all the details connected with the sampling process from the determination of sample size down to the collection of . Statistical design: this part of research design would spell out the type of analysis that would be carried out. The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the sample design. He should examine the type of analysis required for accomplishing each objectives ting the data: collection of data is on important stage in research. After processing in research a scholar explains the he has adopted for analyzing the data. A researcher has several ways of collecting the appropriate data which offer considerably i the context of money. Primary data is known as the data collected for the first time through field g the hypothesis: the researcher after analyzing the data will test the type of /hypothesis while testing the hypothesis various tests such as . This would help the researcher to determine the extent to which he is original and can avoid duplication. Conducting experience survey –this refers to undertaking collection of details and discussion with the experienced people in the chosen field of research. Exploratory types research design of descriptive and atory research design: this is also called formulative research design. Research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine research purpose and economy in procedure. A research design could be defined as he blue print specifying every stage of action in the course of research. A research study may be undertaken to question whether the use varies with income age sex or any other characteristics of population. This may be the reason why executives and business professionals consider research and research findings as a boon in their problem solving process. In this process it may also evaluate the effectiveness of the suggestions already onal areas of lly a manager has to take a course of action which is most effective in attaining the goals of the organization research provides facts and figures in support of such business decisions. The experimental research studies are mainly focused on finding out the cause and effect relationship of the problem under . And diagnostic research design: descriptive research design is concerned with research studies with a focus on the portrayal of the characteristics of a group or individual or a situation. The main objective such studies is to acquire research on management will have the following general objectives: the objective of decision making the objectives of decision making the objective of controlling the managerial activities the object of studying the economic and business environment the object of studying the market the object of studying the new product development the object of studying innovation the object of studying customer management the research helps the management in the following ways:  research provides „decision alternatives in decision making‟  research stimulates thinking analysis evaluation and interpretation of the business environment  research leads to innovation research facilitates the development of new products and modification of the existing products  research easily locates the problem areas. Research for personnel decisions: research on effectiveness of different sources of recruitment and training – research on leadership style and effectiveness – research of personnel information system . Research facilitates business forecasting  market and marketing analysis may be based on research  research is an aid to management information system and  research helps to re-design corporate policy and strategy. They scope of research on these areas are listed below research for marketing decisions: new product development research – research to brand equity and preference – research on pricing strategies – research on distribution channels – research on salesman qualities and effectiveness – research on media effectiveness – research on marketing information system etc. To sum up research is an ingredient in all the functional areas of commerce and economics production and materials management extensively make use of research. Research on business strategies: strategic alliances and divorces – mergers and acquisitions – disinvestment –reorganizations – reengineering etc. However a close observation of management practices i india would determine whether research receives its due importance. Research for financial decisions: research on cost of capital and capital structure – research on working capital management research on inventory management – etc. That is suppose a researcher selects 500 people from chennai city as a sample to study consumer behavior of the people. Suppose for a research work on the literacy level in tamil nadu data is collected from all places in tamil nadu. A)judgment sampling: in this method the sample selecting is purely based on the judgment of the researcher. This is because the researcher may lack information regarding the population from which he has to collect the sample. Faulty method of analysis: this will happen when the researcher is not having knowledge about the usage of sizeand its determination what is the size of the sample? How large should be „n‟ when the size (n) is very small the researcher may achieve the objectives and if it is too large. How ever the researcher has to key the following points in his mind while deciding the size of the sample.

Sample technique: the researcher has to decide the sampling tools while determining the size of the sample a small random sample is better than a larger but badly selected sample. Resources available: what amount of time and financial resources are available to the researcher will determine the size of sample. Miscellaneous factors: in addition to the above considerations the following points to be considered by a researcher. Number of groups: when a researcher forms class – groups a large sample is necessary as a small sample might not be able to give a reasonable number of items in each class-group. Nature of study: when the researcher examines the items very intensively and continuously then the sample should be small. Accuracy and confidence level: a researcher requires a large size sample when the accuracy or the level of precision is to be kept high. Collection of refers to information of facts often researchers understand by data only numerical figure. It also includes facts non-numerical information qualitative and quantitative information in a research of the data are available the research is half-complete. Questionnaire (or) schedule: in this method a pre-printed list of questions arranged in sequence is used to elicit response from the respondent interview: this is a method in which the researcher and the respondent meet and questions raised are answered and answered and salesman visit the retailer‟s shop to not down the details of stock movement. Sensible application of sense organs in understanding less explained or unexplained phenomena” whenever a researcher is unable to compile information through any other method then he has to effectively apply his sense organs to observe and explain. There is a lot of scope for the observer to get distracted or influenced by unexpected factors which would affect the accuracy of information to make observation successful:  first the researcher should have a clear grasp of what he should observe and its purpose. This method has to be necessarily adopted whenever details regarding any confidential matter are to be collected or the research requires data collection directly from the respondents. The researcher determines the questions to be raised at the time of interview and elicit the response for them. Trained and meet every informant at rence between questionnaire and of difference le / dent himself records the researcher answers s the answers vely cheaper as it is sent costlier. As it relatively limited coverage as can be sent to any place by post the investigator can not be sent to every place time taken for apply it can not be established as the it is possible to plan the enquiry respondent may reply at his and depute the investigators convenience accordingly and ation within a targeted whether three might any motive for misrepresentation‟  from whom the data were collected and how reliable the methodology might have been and  how consistent the data are with other local or international s of secondary data: doing the research with the secondary data is called as desk research. The sources for secondary data or the sources for doing desk research will be gathered by the following ways: internal sources: registers... The information had from any published documents which may documents the researcher should consider the following points:  exactly what products are included in the statistical classification  who originally collected the data for what is not way to test the if the investigator is trained and extent of bias of the information experienced then there is very given by the respondent little scope for bias ation content. Generally speaking secondary data is collected by some organization to satisfy its own need but it is being used by various departments for different between primary and secondary data: the researcher must decide whether he will use primary data / secondary data in an research process. Nature and scope of research  availability of financial resources  availability of time  degree of accuracy desired  status of the researcher (individual.. It helps the researcher to develop an appropriate plan of analysis  it provides information for estimating the probable cost and duration of the main study and of its various stages pre-test pre test is a trial test of a specific aspect of the study such as method of data collection instrument–interview schedule mailed questionnaire or measurement scale pre-testing has several purposes. To test whether the instrument would elicit responses required to achieve the research objectives  whether the content of the instrument is relevant and adequate  to test whether wording of questions is clear and suited to the understanding of the respondents field conditions hypothesis testing hypothesis is an assumption or some supposition to be proved or disproved. The feature of a hypothesis statement are as follows: it should be clear and precise it should be capable of tested it should state the relationship between variables it should be limited in scope and must be specific it should be stated in simple concepts: null hypothesis: the random selection of the samples from the given population makes the tests of significance valid for tion of hypothesis: a research hypothesis is a predictive statement capable of being tested by scientific methods. A researcher may commit two type of errors namely type i error and type ii error. From experience and research findings in the past it is well known that rain fall certainly affect food ure for hypothesis testing \\ the researcher has to state ho as well as ha the researcher has to specify the level of significance (or the α value) the researcher has to decide the correct sampling distribution the researcher has state sample a random sample(s) and workout an appropriate value from sample has to calculate the probability that sample result could diver age as widely as it has from expectation ho wee this probability equal to or smaller then a value in case of one – tailed test and a/2 in case 2-tailed sor & head in mba.. The researcher has to compare the probability thus calculated with ithe specified value for α significance level. Selecting a random sample and computing an appropriate value: the researcher has to select a random sample(s) and compute an appropriate value from the sample a formal statement: it consists of making a formal statement of the null hypothesis ho and also of the alternative hypothesis ha selecting a significance level: generally the hypothesis is tested on a pre-determined level of significance and as such the same should be . Calculation of the probability the researcher has to calculate the probability that the sample result would diverge as widely as it has from expectations. Deciding the distribution to use: after deciding the level of significance the researcher has to determine the appropriate sampling tical analysis is useful for assessing the significance of specific sample results under assumed population conditions. But there are some situations when the researcher cannot or does not want to make such assumption. Each row must be titled rows and columns are to be numbered footnotes of the table should indicate the explanatory notes on the data in the table and the footnotes must be positioned below the table data to be compared must be placed in adjacent . Now the personal computers have emerged as one of the most effective tools in the use of market research. The storing facility of the computers will help the researcher immensely for using the data whenever he requires. Oral presentation: this type of reporting takes place in public viva voce examination conducted for phd researchers. Liberal use of diagram‟ of research report: technical report: in this type of report the scholar should focus on the assumptions of his type of reporting is to make an impact on the people who are informed about the findings and suggestions. The bibliography should contain a list of books in some way pertinent to the research which has been done. At this stage the researcher need not impose any restrictions with regard to the style. They must be original and not the body of the report is finalized the bibliography should als used as reference should be acknowledged and the details should be given through either foot notes or end notes.

The technical tools applied in the process of analysis should all be explained in details through the methodology adopted for the study. The details appear in the same sequence as in the list of ive summary this is the last section of the research report. I) the effort to establish continuity in research though linking the results of a given study with those of another. It is being considered a basic component of research process because of the following reasons: (i)it is through interpretation that the researcher can be well understand the abstract principle that works beneath his findings. Interpretation is he device through which the factors that seem to explain what has been observed by researcher in the course of the study can be better understood and it also provides a theoretical conception which can serve as a guide for further researchers. Why interpretation interpretation is essential for the simple reason that the usefulness and utility of research findings lie in proper interpretation. Interpretation also extend beyond the data of the study to include the results of other research. But in case the researcher had no hypothesis to start with he would try to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. Preferably through research report to the consumers of research results who may be either an individual or a group of individuals or some public / private retation and report writing after collecting and analyzing the data the researcher has to accomplish the task of drawing interferences followed by report writing. It is only through interpretation that the researcher can expose relations and processes that underlie his findings. Otherwise misleading conclusion may be draw and the whole purpose of doing research may get vitiated. Such a consultation will result in correct interpretation and thus will enhance the utility of research results. Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all relevant factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization. Iii)researcher can better appreciate only through interpretation why his findings are what they ar and can make others to understand the real significance of his research findings. Ii) interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts that can serve as a guide for future research studies it opens new avenues of intellectual adventure and stimulates the quest for more . The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps: (i) researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has found and he must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes and must try to find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the surface layer of his diversified research findings. Iv) the interpretation of the findings of exploratory research study often results into hypotheses for experimental research and as such interpretation is involved in the transition from exploratory to experimental tions concerning the reliability of data. The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in the process of interpreting results errors an arise due the false generalization and or due to wrong interpretation of statistical measure. Broad generalization should be avoided as most research is not amenable to it because the coverage may be restricted to a particular time a particular area and particular conditions. Researcher must pay attention to the following points for correct interpretation: (i) at the outset. The researcher must remain vigilant about all such things so that false generalization may not take place. The researcher must remember that ideally in the course of a researcher tions in interpretation one should always remember that even if the data are properly collected and analyzed wrong interpretation would lead to inaccurate . Researcher must invariably satisfy himself that (a) the data are appropriate trustworthy and adequate for drawing fact the positive test results accepting the hypothesis must be interpreted as “being in accord” with the purpose of research is not well served unless the findings are made known to other . There are people who do not consider writing of report as an integral part of the research process. Of report writing research report is considered a major component of the research study for the research task remains incomplete till the report has been presented and or written. But the general opinion is in favour of treating the presentation of research results or the writing of report as part and parcel of the research project. Preparation of the final outline: it is the next step in writing the research report “outlines are the framework upon which long written works are constructed. As a matter of fact even the most brilliant hypothesis highly well designed and conducted research study. Writing of report is the last step in a research study and requires a set of skills somewhat different from those called for in respect of the earlier stages of research. The researcher should also “see whether or not the material as it is presented has unity and cohesion does he report stand upright and firm and exhibit a definite pattern like a marble arch? In addition the researcher should give due attention to the fact that in his rough draft he has been consistent or not. Which is generally appended to the research report is a list of books in some way pertinent to the research which has been done. Such a step is of utmost importance for the researcher now sits to write down what he has done in the context of his research study. Who is reading the research report must necessarily be conveyed enough about the study so that he can place it in its general scientific context. Illustration and examples based on common experiences must be incorporated in the final draft as they happen to be most effective in communicating the research finding to others. It must be remembered that every report should be an attempt to solve some intellectual problem and must contribute to the solution of a problem and must add to the knowledge of both the researcher and the various limitations. Title of the research study is repeated at the top of the first page of the main text an then follows the other details on pages numbered consecutively beginning with the second page.

B) main text the main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with all details. I)introduction: the purpose of introduction is to introduce the research project to the readers. A brief summary of other relevant research may also be stated so that the present study can be seen in that context. Ii)statement of findings and recommendations: after introduction the research report must contain a statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical language so that it can be easily understood by . Must also be the same time a forecast of the probably future of the subject and an indication of the kind of research which needs to be done in that particular field is useful and desirable. C) the relevant questions that still remain unanswered or new questions raised by the study along with suggestions for the kind of research that would provide answers for them. But ultimately the researcher must rely on his own judgment in deciding the outline of his report. Resting in brief the research problem the methodology the major conclusions drawn from the research results. V)summary: it has become customary to conclude the research report with very brief summary. The above narrations throws light on the fact that the results of a research investigation can be presented in a number of ways viz. Distributing a board outline with a few important tables and charts concerning the research results. Researches done on governmental account or on behalf of some major public or private organizations are usually presented in the form of technical reports. Mechanics of writing a research report there are very definite and set rules which should be followed in the actual preparation of the research report or paper. This very often happens in academic institutions where the researcher discusses his research finding and policy implications with others either in a seminar or in a group discussion. Is that of writing the technical report and then preparing several research papers to be discussed at various forums in one form or the other. But the main demerit of this sort of presentations is the lack of any permanent record concerning the research details and it may e just possible that the findings may fade away from people‟s memory even before an action is taken. Oral presentation at times oral presentation of the results of the study is considered decided as soon as the materials for the research paper have been assembled. The layout of the report should be thought of and decided and accordingly adopted (the layout of the research report and various types of reports have been described in this chapter earlier which should be taken as a guide for report-writing in case of a particular problem). Footnotes: regarding footnotes one should keep in view the followings: (a) the foot notes serve two purposes viz, the identification of materials used in quotations in the report and the notice of materials not immediately necessary to the body of the research text but still of supplemental value. In other words footnotes are meant for cross references, citation of authorities and sources, acknowledgement and elucidation or explanation of a point of view. The modern tendency is to make the minimum use of footnotes for scholarship does not need to be displayed. B) footnotes are placed at the bottom of the page on which the references or quotation which they identify or supplement ends. Footnotes are customarily separated from the textual material by a space of half an inch and a line about one and a half inches long. D) footnotes are always typed in single space though they are divided from one another by double space ntation style: regarding documentation the first footnote reference to any given work should be complete in its documentation, giving all the essential facts about the edition used. Loco citato, in the place cited) are two of the very convenient abbreviations used in the footnotes. Ation and abbreviations in footnotes: the first item after the number in the footnote is the author‟s name given in the normal signature order. Use of statistics, charts and graphs: a judicious use of statistics in research reports is often considered a virtue for it contributes a great deal towards the clarification an and simplification of the material and research results. For the purpose, the researcher should put to himself questions like; are the sentences written in the report clear? Graphy: bibliography should be prepared and appended to the research report as discussed , professor & head in mba. It must reflect a structure wherein the different pieces of analysis relating to the research problem fit well. Precautions for writing research reports research report is a channel of communicating the research findings to the readers of the report. A research report should show originality and should necessarily be n attempt to solve some intellectual problem. The layout of the report should be well thought out and must be appropriate and in accordance with the objective of the research problem. Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced in conducting the research study may also be stated in the report. 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