Secondary data analysis
This ch & uction to theoretical d june 07, social science research, the terms primary data and secondary data are common parlance. Primary data is collected by a researcher or team of researchers for the specific purpose or analysis under consideration. Here, a research team conceives of and develops a research project, collects data designed to address specific questions, and performs their own analyses of the data they collected. In this case, the people involved in the data analysis are familiar with the research design and data collection ary data analysis, on the other hand, is the use of data that was collected by someone else for some other purpose. In this case, the researcher poses questions that are addressed through the analysis of a data set that they were not involved in collecting. The data was not collected to answer the researcher’s specific research questions and was instead collected for another purpose. So, the same data set can actually be a primary data set to one researcher and a secondary data set to a different secondary datathere are some important things that must be done before using secondary data in an analysis. Since the researcher did not collect the data, it's important for him to become familiar with the data set: how the data was collected, what the response categories are for each question, whether or not weights need to be applied during the analysis, whether or not clusters or stratification need to be accounted for, who the population of study was, and more. Great deal of secondary data resources and data sets are available for sociological research, many of which are public and easily accessible. The united states census, the general social survey, and the american community survey are some of the most commonly used secondary data sets ages of secondary data analysisthe biggest advantage of using secondary data is economics. Someone else has already collected the data, so the researcher does not have to devote money, time, energy and resources to this phase of research. Sometimes the secondary data set must be purchased, but the cost is almost always lower than the expense of collecting a similar data set from scratch, which usually entails salaries, travel and transportation, office space, equipment, and other overhead addition, since the data is already collected and usually cleaned and stored in electronic format, the researcher can spend most of her time analyzing the data instead of getting the data ready for analysis. Many of these data sets are also longitudinal, meaning that the same data has been collected from the same population over several different time periods. Third important advantage of using secondary data is that the data collection process often maintains a level of expertise and professionalism that may not be present with individual researchers or small research projects. For example, data collection for many federal data sets is often performed by staff members who specialize in certain tasks and have many years of experience in that particular area and with that particular survey. Many smaller research projects do not have that level of expertise, as a lot of data is collected by students working antages of secondary data analysisa major disadvantage of using secondary data is that it may not answer the researcher’s specific research questions or contain specific information that the researcher would like to have. Since the researcher did not collect the data, he has no control over what is contained in the data set. Often times this can limit the analysis or alter the original questions the researcher sought to answer. For example, age may have been collected in categories rather than as a continuous variable, or race may be defined as “white” and “other” instead of containing categories for every major r significant disadvantage of using secondary data is that the researcher doesn't know exactly how the data collection process was done and how well it was carried out. The researcher is not usually privy to information about how seriously the data is affected by problems such as low response rate or respondent misunderstanding of specific survey questions. Sometimes this information is readily available, as is the case with many federal data sets. However, many other secondary data sets are not accompanied by this type of information and the analyst must learn to read between the lines and consider what problems might have colored the data collection te this to use secondary data in social science schools ban or embrace cell phones? I heard it through the grapevine:" secondary sources in quota sampling software tools for analyzing quantiative sociological type of survey is best for my research? Apply by email to sru@ary analysis of qualitative heaton is a research fellow and a part-time dphil student in the social policy research unit, department of social policy and social work at the university of york. Her interest in secondary analysis of qualitative data developed through the intersection of these two roles. For her doctoral work she is re-analysing data from studies on which she worked as a primary researcher, focusing on the 'temporal imperatives' which characterise the discourses surrounding contemporary hospital discharge policy and ary analysis involves the utilisation of existing data, collected for the purposes of a prior study, in order to pursue a research interest which is distinct from that of the original work;.
Methodological and ethical issues need to be considered and are more problematic if the secondary analyst was not part of the original research team;. Work to develop the approach is required in order to see if the potential benefits can actually be realised in gh the secondary analysis of quantitative data is a common and generally accepted mode of inquiry, the same cannot be said of qualitative data (hinds, vogel and clarke-steffen 1997). This update outlines some of the forms that secondary analysis of qualitative data can take, the key methodological and ethical issues that arise, and how the approach might be further is secondary analysis? Analysis involves the use of existing data, collected for the purposes of a prior study, in order to pursue a research interest which is distinct from that of the original work; this may be a new research question or an alternative perspective on the original question (hinds, vogel and clarke-steffen 1997, szabo and strang 1997). In this respect, secondary analysis differs from systematic reviews and meta-analyses of qualitative studies which aim instead to compile and assess the evidence relating to a common concern or area of practice (popay, rogers and williams 1998). As will be shown below, secondary analysis can involve the use of single or multiple qualitative data sets, as well as mixed qualitative and quantitative data sets. In addition, the approach may either be employed by researchers to re-use their own data or by independent analysts using previously established qualitative data e the fact that thus far secondary analysis of qualitative data has not been widely undertaken, there have been a few reviews of the approach (e. Classification of different types of secondary analysis of qualitative data is not straightforward as there are almost as many types as there are examples. It is made more difficult by the fact that some researchers may not define their work as secondary analysis (hinds, vogel and clarke-steffen 1997). Difficulties notwithstanding, forms of secondary analysis are cross-classified in table 1 according to the focus of the analysis and the nature of the original data used. Examples of work classified in this way will be described; some cells remain empty (cells 1c, 2a and b, 3a and c) because appropriate examples have not yet been identified and it is not known if these forms of secondary analysis have ever been conducted (there are no a priori grounds for excluding them). 1: forms of secondary onal in-depth analysis: a more intensive focus on a particular finding or aspect than was undertaken as part of the primary work. For example, szabo and strang (1997) describe how they used secondary analysis of their previous study on informal carers of relatives with dementia to consider how carers' perceived 'control' enabled them to manage their care giving experience (cell 1a). Bull and kane (1996) conducted a secondary analysis of two data sets previously collected by the first author, both of which were broadly concerned with elderly people's discharge from hospital to home, to investigate in more depth the nature of the problems encountered by professionals and users (cell 1b). Again using data from two qualitative studies on which they had worked separately, angst and deatrick (1996) described how children with chronic illness and their parents are involved in health care decisions (cell 1b). Similarly, kirschbaum and knafl (1996) combined data from two studies with which they had been involved, to explore the nature and quality of parent-professional relationships across two different illness situations (cell 1b). Sub-set analysis: a selective focus on a sub-set of the sample from the original study (or studies), sharing characteristics which warrant further analysis. For instance, in their secondary analysis of related quantitative and qualitative data sets about claimants of invalid care allowance, mclaughlin and ritchie (1994) concentrate on the ex-carers in the original sample in order to describe the socio-economic and psychological legacies of care giving among this group (cell 2c). Perspective/conceptual focus: the retrospective analysis of the whole or part of a data set from a different perspective, to examine concepts which were not central to the original research. I have adopted this strategy in my ongoing doctoral research which involves re-examining qualitative data relating to people's experiences of hospital discharge in order to explore the temporal organisation of this process and associated aftercare regimes (cell 3b). In addition, although not self-defined as secondary analysis, bloor and macintosh's (1990) study of techniques of client resistance to surveillance drew on two earlier studies that they conducted and provides a further illustration of this approach (cell 3b). Is growing interest in re-using qualitative data, reflected in the establishment of qualidata by the esrc. This facilitates the archiving of data from qualitative studies (corti and thompson 1998, hammersley 1997, corti et al 1995). More generally, limited opportunities for conducting primary research and the costs of qualitative work have prompted researchers to consider maximising use of the data available to them. The advent of software to aid the coding, retrieval and analysis of qualitative data is another development which is likely to facilitate both the archiving and availability of qualitative data for secondary analytic purposes. In these respects, the impetus behind the approach is similar to the one which informed the secondary analysis of quantitative data (procter 1993).
Arguments in favour of developing secondary analysis of qualitative studies have been put forward (hinds, vogel and clarke-steffen 1997, sandelowski 1997, szabo and strang 1997, thorne 1994). For example, it has been contended that the approach can be used to generate new knowledge, new hypotheses, or support for existing theories; that it reduces the burden placed on respondents by negating the need to recruit further subjects; and that it allows wider use of data from rare or inaccessible addition, it has been suggested that secondary analysis is a more convenient approach for particular researchers, notably students (szabo and strang 1997). However, thorne (1994) argues that where the researcher was not part of the original research team the approach is best only employed by experienced researchers because of the particular difficulties of doing secondary analysis in an independent capacity. It should also be noted that use of the approach does not necessarily preclude the possibility of collecting primary data. This may, for example, be required to obtain additional data or to pursue in a more controlled way the findings emerging from the initial analysis. There may also be a need to consult the primary researcher(s) (assuming that they are available) in order to investigate the circumstances of the original data generation and e the interest in and arguments for developing secondary analysis of qualitative data, the approach has not been widely adopted to date. Furthermore, as was shown above, existing studies have mainly been conducted by researchers re-using their own data rather than by independent analysts using data collected by others. This raises questions about the desirability and feasibility of particular strategies for secondary analysis of qualitative data discussed ological and ethical highlighting some of the key practical and ethical issues which have been discussed in the literature, there are two fundamental methodological issues to be first is whether secondary analysis of qualitative studies is tenable, given that it is often thought to involve an inter-subjective relationship between the researcher and the researched. In response, it may be argued that even where primary data is gathered via interviews or observation in qualitative studies, there may be more than one researcher involved. Hence within the research team the data still has to be contextualised and interpreted by those who were not present. A more radical response is to argue that the design, conduct and analysis of both qualitative and quantitative research are always contingent upon the contextualisation and interpretation of subjects' situation and responses. Thus, secondary analysis is no more problematic than other forms of empirical inquiry, all of which, at some stage, depend on the researcher's ability to form critical insights based on inter-subjective second issue concerns the problem of where primary analysis stops and secondary analysis starts. For primary researchers re-using their own data it may be difficult to determine whether the research is part of the original enquiry or sufficiently new and distinct from it to qualify as secondary analysis. For independent analysts re-using other researchers' data there are also related professional issues about the degree of overlap between their respective work. There is no easy solution to these problems except to say that greater awareness of secondary analysis might enable researchers to more appropriately recognise and define their work as as the above issues have received little attention in the literature to date, so the principles of, and guidelines for, the conduct of secondary analysis remain rather ill-defined (thorne 1994). However, a number of practical and ethical considerations have been highlighted (hinds, vogel and clarke-steffen 1997, szabo and strang 1997, thorne 1994) and four key issues are summarised ibility of the data with secondary analysis: are the data amenable to secondary analysis? This will depend on the 'fit' between the purpose of the analysis and the nature and quality of the original data (thorne 1994). Scope for additional in-depth analysis will vary depending on the nature of the data; for example, while tightly structured interviews tend to limit the range of responses, designs using semi-structured schedules may produce more rich and varied data. A check for the extent of missing data relevant to the secondary analysis but irrelevant to the original study may also be required; for example, where semi-structured interviews involved the discretionary use of probes. More generally, the quality of original data will also need to be assessed and hinds, vogel and clarke-steffen (1997, appendix) provide a set of criteria for this on of the secondary analyst: was the analyst part of the original research team? This will influence the decision over whether to undertake secondary analysis and, if so, the procedures to be followed. Secondary analysts require access to the original data, including tapes and field notes, in order to re-examine the data with the new focus in mind. Further consultation may also be helpful in terms of cross-checking the results of the secondary analysis. Finally, whether conducting secondary analysis in an independent capacity or not, some form of contractual agreement between the secondary analyst and the primary researcher(s), data archive managers, and colleagues involved in the primary research but not in the secondary analysis may have to be ing of original and secondary data analysis: such is the complexity of secondary analysis, that it is particularly important that the study design, methods and issues involved are reported in full. Ideally this should include an outline of the original study and data collection procedures, together with a description of the processes involved in categorising and summarising the data for the secondary analysis, as well as an account of how methodological and ethical considerations were addressed (thorne 1994). Given that it is usually not feasible to seek additional consent, a professional judgement may have to be made about whether re-use of the data violates the contract made between subjects and the primary researchers (hinds, vogel and clarke-steffen 1997).
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Growing interest in re-using data make it imperative that researchers in general now consider obtaining consent which covers the possibility of secondary analysis as well as the research in hand; this is consistent with professional guidelines on ethical practice (british sociological association 1996). The see if the potential of secondary analysis can be realised in practice, developmental work still needs to be undertaken. First, there should be a more comprehensive review of the literature on secondary analysis and studies which have explicitly (and perhaps implicitly) used this approach. Secondly, further work on the protocols for conducting secondary analysis of qualitative data, particularly with regard to the re-use of other researchers' data should be carried out. Thirdly, there should be greater consideration of the issues involved in the secondary analysis of single, multiple and mixed data sets. On this note, it is encouraging that qualidata are currently working with the esrc to produce guidelines on collecting and preparing data for archiving and on issues of confidentiality and copyright (corti and thompson 1998). Growing interest in the re-use of qualitative data, secondary analysis remains an under-developed and ill-defined approach. Various methodological and ethical considerations pose a challenge for the would-be secondary analyst, particularly those who were not part of the primary research team. 1997) 'the possibilities and pitfalls of doing a secondary analysis of a qualitative data set', qualitative health research, vol. Pmc4311114language: english | chinesesecondary analysis of existing data: opportunities overall efficiency of the health research enterprise. But this effort depends on governments, es, and researchers making the data collected in primary research studies and in ry systems available to qualified researchers who were not involved in the original research or in on and maintenance of the registry systems. This article introduces the rationale and concept of the secondary analysis of , describes several sources of publicly available datasets, provides general guidelines for ary analyses of existing data, and discusses the advantages and disadvantages of analyzing ds: statistical data interpretation, secondary analysis, existing data, data collection, national institute of health概述现有数据的二次分析已成为提升卫生研究机构. Typical mental health research project begins with pment of a comprehensive research is (hopefully) followed by the successful funding; the researcher then collects data, results, and writes-up one or more research r less common, but no less important, is the analysis of existing data. The analysis ng data is a cost-efficient way to make full use that are already collected to address ant new research questions or to provide a d assessment of the primary results from al study. In this article we discuss the n primary and secondary data, ation about existing mental health-related are publically available for further analysis, steps of conducting analyzes of existing data, s the pros and cons of analyzing existing data. Is frequently confusion about the use of ‘primary data’, ‘primary data analysis’, ‘’, and ‘secondary data analysis’. Based on the the national institute of health (nih) in the , ‘primary data analysis’ is limited to the data by members of the research team that data, which are conducted to answer the original hypotheses proposed in the study. All other analyses collected for specific research studies or data collected for other purposes (including ) are considered ‘secondary analyses of ’, whether or not the persons conducting es participated in the collection of the data. Ement of the traditional term ‘secondary is’ with the term ‘secondary analysis of ’ is a much clearer categorization because it confusion of trying to decide whether the ed in an analysis is ‘primary data’ or ‘ course, there are cases where the distinction clear. One example would be the analysis of a researcher who has no connection with the tion team to address a research question ps with the hypotheses considered in the . Another example would be when a member original research team subsequently revisits al hypothesis in an analysis that uses tical methods. To maximize of data collection efforts, researchers many more variables than those strictly answer their original hypotheses. Unfortunately, the vast majority of ted datasets are not made available, and countries (including china), there isn’t even ry or other means of determining what data previously collected about a specific research topic. This type ge usually involves an agreement between collection team and the data analysis team y details about data sharing protocols and how are several publically available onic databases that can be used to address y of research topics. However, these statistics are the country-level so regional or up-specific data are not usually r similar source is data available on e of the institute of health metrics tion at the university of washington in e includes the global burden of disease (gbd). Cause-specific mortality lity) from 1990 to 2010 and data which make it possible to compare the ance of different health conditions ( disorders) between countries and ent population groups within countries (http://.
B) established in 1962, the inter-university political and social research (icpsr, http:///icpsrweb/) is data source for scholars in the social d at the university of michigan in the , icpsr is a membership-based network es 65, 000 datasets from over 8, 000 s or surveys, including a number of largescale population surveys conducted in the and other countries. The website analysis tools to generate simple tics including frequencies and addition to ascii and . Format, the provides options for downloading data s that are compatible with popular re packages such as sas, stata, spss, and website also provides technical support in is and in the identification of potential s. C) a variety of government agencies in the united rly collect data on different and post them online for free download cleaning is completed. For example, the census bureau (http:///) provides basic demographic data and s for disease control and prevention (http://) provides access to data on causespecific disability, mortality, and an array of ions including injuries and violence, , and tobacco smoking. The substance mental health services administration have of datasets posted on their website (http:///data/) about various mental nce use disorders. Users interested in ation about publicly available can refer to secondary data sources for : a practical guide by boslaugh. Conducting a secondary analysis of existing are two general approaches for analyzing : the ‘research question-driven’ approach ‘data-driven’ approach. In the data-driven chers glance through variables in a t and decide what kind of questions can ed by the available data. If they do not ts that contain all variables needed, they the research question(s) or the analysis on the best available conducting either research data-driven approaches to the analysis of , researchers need to follow the same basic steps. In the on-driven approach this is determined researchers look at the actual data the dataset; in the data-driven approach this ined after the researchers look through the. To the extent possible,Researchers need to obtain and study in detail instruments, codebooks, guidebooks other documentation provided for users databases. These documents should ient information to assess the internal al validity of the data and allow researchers ine whether or not there are enough cases dataset to generate meaningful estimates topic(s) of interest. C) before conducting the analysis, researchers generate operational definitions of the le(s), outcome variable(s), covariates, nding variables that will be considered in the. D) the first step in the analysis is to run and cross-tabulations of all variables be included in the main analysis. Prior to conducting analysis, these types of missing values (te that a particular condition is not the respondent) need to be distinguished g values for which the data is, in fact, missing. And for the analysis itself) should be original dataset should never be altered in any. F) when using data from longitudinal surveys or data stored in different datasets, it is check the accuracy of the identifier variable(s) that the data from different time periods different datasets is matched correctly g the datasets. In this case, the data set es design variables for each case (ng weight, strata, and primary sampling unit). Researchers who ary analysis of existing data should design variables used in the original study these variables appropriately in their es in order to generate less biased estimates. There is sometimes a ed to obtain access to such datasets, but this always a tiny proportion of what it would cost t an original study. Also, the data posted usually cleaned by professional staff members provide detailed documentation about the tion and data cleaning process. Moreover, ting large-scale population-based surveys made available to others usually employ generate ready-to-use survey weights and les - something that most users of the data to do - so this helps users make ments to their estimates. This is a great boon te students and others who have lots of but no money to conduct the studies that chers who would rather spend their g hypotheses and thinking about ch approaches rather than collecting primary find a large amount of data online. For example, experts in can combine data from individual surveys ate data from different administrative levels of. Nt to the nature of the secondary analysis ng data, the available data are not collected s the particular research question or to test ular hypothesis.
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Similarly, the data may not be collected for tion subgroups of interest or for all s of interest. Another problem is that to confidentiality of respondents, publicly ts usually delete identifying variables dents, variables that may be important in ed analysis such as zip codes, the names of y sampling units, and the race, ethnicity, ic age of respondents. This can create nding when the omitted variables are ates to control for in the secondary r major limitation of the analysis of is that the researchers who are analyzing are not usually the same individuals as ed in the data collection process. Therefore,They are probably unaware of study-specific glitches in the data collection process that may ant to the interpretation of specific variables dataset. Government support for secondary analysis paper discusses several issues related to ary analysis of existing data. There are tions to such analyses, but the great that secondary analyses can dramatically overall efficiency of the research effort and -. Secondary advantage - give young good ideas but little access to research opportunity to test their ideas. Recognizing ance of making the most of high-quality and of rapidly translating research findings able knowledge, starting in 2003 the national institute of health, the largest for biomedical research in the world, projects with annual direct costs of 500, 000 s or more to include data-sharing plans in als. These that other researchers not involved in the in the creation and maintenance of the registries able to use the data generated by these big by the registries to test a wide range of governments (including the chinese government),Health-related non-government organizations, funders of biomedical research need to examples. Failure to provide qualified to government-generated registry data or ment-supported research data results in a unnecessary wastage of economic and ces that could be better employed to improve of the phydr. Thank you very much for your courses by r sional college icates of transferable credit & get your degree degrees by ical and ications and ry arts and l arts and ic and repair l and health ortation and and performing a degree that fits your schools by degree degree raduate schools by sity video counseling & job interviewing tip networking ching careers info by outlook by & career research & worksheet - understanding secondary data short & fun your free trial h teaches college accounting and has a master's degree in educational to watch this again later? In this lesson, you will learn about secondary data analysis and when businesses can use is secondary data analysis? Cool could gather data directly from his existing customers by asking them about their preference for his new location. Unlike primary data, people collect secondary data for a different purpose other than the one for which it is used. Secondary data analysis involves an individual using the information that someone else gathered for his or her own purposes. Cool could use the census data, but since he did not gather the information, it may not provide him with all the information he needs in order to make his decision. Cool did not gather the census data himself, he will need to examine how the data was collected and determine who was included in the study. If he had collected the primary data himself, he would already know what questions he asked and whom he surveyed. Using secondary data, such as census information, will require him to include this extra step to be comfortable using the information. Cool could use the census data to gather information on the population of the next city as well as the age distribution of its neighborhoods. Primary data is information that is gathered by an individual or company for a specific purpose. Secondary data represents information gathered by an individual and used by someone else for a purpose other than the one for which it was originally gathered. Census data that the government gathers regularly about information, such as the population's age, highest level of schooling achieved, and economic information represents a source of secondary data. If someone wants to use secondary data, he or she should examine how the researchers collected the data and who was included in the study. Secondary data analysis involves an individual using information that someone else gathered for a purpose other than the one for which it was originally gathered. Secondary data is a low-cost method of obtaining information, as the user doesn't have to pay for it, but it may not contain the detailed information that is er for a free you a student or a teacher?
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